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Volume 7 Number 1 2013 
CONTENTS AND ABSTRACTS
Mira Grdisa (Croatia) Therapeutic Properties of Earthworms (pp 1-5)
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ABSTRACT
Invited Mini-Review: The medical value of earthworms has been known for centuries. This is evident from the history of the ancient Southeastern Asian medicine (China, Japan, Vietnam). The earthworms are the source of proteins, peptides, enzymes and physiologically active substances. Thus, the extracts prepared from the earthworm tissue have been used for the treatment of numerous diseases. Earthworms, like other complex invertebrates, possess several types of leukocytes which synthesize and secrete a variety of immunoprotective molecules. The immunoprotective system is involved in phagocytosis, encapsulation, agglutination, opsonization, clotting and lysis of foreign components. The lytic reactions against several targets are mediated by two major leukocytes, small and large coelomocytes. In the last 10 years a number of earthworm’s clot-dissolving, lytic and immune-boosting compounds have been isolated and tested in laboratory and clinical studies. In particular, research has been focused on clot-dissolving molecules. Fibrinolytic enzymes, which are regarded as potent and safe, have been purified and studied from several species of earthworms, including Lumbricus rubellas and Eisenia fetida. Its therapeutic and preventive effects on thrombosis-related disease have been clinically confirmed. However, several studies have shown that earthworm extracts contain different macromolecules, which exhibit a variety of activities, such as antioxidative, antibacterial, antiinflammatory, antitumor, etc. Some of these activities are involved in wound healing using an earthworm preparation.
Chris O. Ojiewo (Tanzania/Malawi), Gedion N. Mwai, Mary O. Abukutsa-Onyango, Stephen G. Agong (Kenya), Remi Nono-Womdim (Tanzania/Italy) Exploiting the Genetic Diversity of Vegetable African Nightshades (pp 6-13)
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Review: African nightshades (Solanum section Solanum) are an important source of daily nutrients and income for small-scale farmers in sub-Saharan Africa and are a delicacy for urban inhabitants. The section is one of the most ubiquitous, largest and most diverse species groups of the genus Solanum, with more than 30 reported species. Complete profiling of the species in this section has been hampered by several morphological, cytological and taxonomic complexities. There is great diversity within the section that could be exploited to improve African nightshade for greater productivity, income generation and nutritional benefits. This paper outlines some factors responsible for the diversity and emphasizes the need for conservation, improvement and utilization of the agrobiodiversity within this section.
Andrea Ertani, Ornella Francioso, Diego Pizzeghello (Italy), Eduardo López Tobar, Santiago Sanchez-Cortes (Spain), Serenella Nardi (Italy) Spectroscopic and Biological Properties of Humic Substances Extracted from Earthworm Coprolites in a Long-Term Experiment Treated with Manure and Mineral Fertilization (pp 14-21)
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Original Research Paper: Humic substances (HS) are the most important natural soil conditioners because they play an important role in guaranteeing long-term fertility. In this study, the structure and biological properties of HS of earthworm (Allobophora rosea) faeces were investigated in order to better understand how fertilization practices can influence their chemical and biological properties. The study was conducted in the Experimental Farm of Padua University, at Legnaro (NE Italy 45° 21' N; 11° 58' E; 6 m a.s.l.) as part of the longest running rotation experiment in Italy. The soil is a fluvi-calcaric cambisol (CMcf), silty or sandy loam, with a sub-basic pH. The trial considers 4 treatments with maize as the main crop. These allow the comparison between fertilization with only organic (farmyard manure, 60 t ha-1 y-1, 20% d.m.), only mineral (high mineral input, 300 kg N ha y-1, 66 kg P ha y-1, 348 kg K ha y-1) or mixed inputs (farmyard manure, 30 t ha-1 y-1, 20% d.m. plus mineral input, 150 kg N ha y-1, 33 kg P ha y-1, 174 kg K ha y-1) and no fertilization. The experimental layout is a randomized block with three replicates, on plots of 7.8 × 6 m. The coprolites taken from each plot were treated with alkaline solution to extract the HS. Gel permeation chromatography, infrared spectroscopy and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) were applied to study the structure of HS. The biological activity of HS was also investigated by assaying the auxin and gibberellic-like activity. The results obtained have shown that a relationship exists between different fertilization practices and chemical and biological properties of HS produced by earthworms.
Vallence Nsabiyera, Maurine Logose, Mildred Ochwo-Ssemakula (Uganda), Peter Sseruwagi (Uganda/Tanzania), Paul Gibson (Uganda/USA), Chris Ojiewo (Malawi) Morphological Characterization of Local and Exotic Hot Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Collections in Uganda (pp 22-32)
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Original Research Paper: Thirty-seven local and introduced genotypes of hot pepper (Capsicum annuum) were characterized for 20 quantitative and 28 qualitative morphological characters under screen-house conditions. There were highly significant differences among genotypes for most quantitative characters (P<0.001) except primary branch numbers (P>0.05). Exotic genotypes were superior in most traits compared to local genotypes. Local genotypes were characterized by small fruits, late maturity, taller plants with wider canopies compared to introduced genotypes. Local genotypes #31 and #26 were outstanding with respect to numbers of fruits per plant (mean 62) and earliness (60 days), respectively. The first and second principal components (PCs) for quantitative traits accounted for 41.6% and 13.8% of the total variability, respectively. Fruit length, fruit weight and fruit wall thickness largely contributed to PC1. Days to flowering, fruiting, fruit maturity; stem diameter and height; plant height and width largely contributed to PC2. Moderate diversity based on qualitative traits (Mean diversity index H` = 0.53) was detected among genotypes. Higher diversity indices were observed for stem pubescence type (1.16), leaf pubescence type and density (1.02), anther colour (0.94), calyx margin and fruit surface (1.06), and immature fruit colour intensity (1.03). Cluster analyses using 20 quantitative and 28 qualitative traits showed diversity among the genotypes at phenotypic level but with some level of genotypic relatedness and closeness. Based on Euclidean distance in cluster analysis dendrograms, exotic genotypes grouped more with local genotypes in qualitative compared with quantitative traits. The diversity among the germplasm in both qualitative and quantitative traits revealed by this study can be used for trait improvement through selection and gene introgression.
Pasquale Martiniello (Italy), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan) Botanical Survey of Floral Species and Animal Feeding Values in Pasturelands of Environments with a Mediterranean Climate (pp 33-48)
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Original Research Paper: The native flora of Mediterranean environments with meso-Mediterranean zones, instead of being protected by European Union and Italian government law, continue to be threatened as a result of the effect of social and anthropological evolution and misleading utilization of herbs causing genetic erosion of flora species. A floral survey was established over a three-year period in 20 pasturelands. The biodiversity discovered in the environmental pastures amounts to 29 botanical families and 361 floral species. The most represented floral species (expressed as a percentage of the mean value of the floral species of pasturelands) belong to the following botanical families: Graminaceae (26%), Leguminosae (17%), Compositae (19%), Labiatae (5%), Liliaceae (5%), Umbelliferae (3%), Cruciferae (4%), Plantaginaceae and Ranunculaceae (3%), and Caryophyllaceae (2%). The floral species less represented (< 1% of total flora) are included in a miscellaneous group composed of 19 botanical families. The floral biodiversity influences the herbage and milk feeding units of pasturelands. Five species from the Graminaceae (Aegilops geniculata L., Dasypyrum villosum (L.) Borbas, Stipa barbata Desf., Lolium perenne L. and Phalaris minor L.), which face the risk of extinction, were evaluated over a separate (but later) two-year period at Foggia for seed production. Agronomic evaluations of seed yield and its components of the five most popular grass species evidenced different bioagronomic characteristics and the possibility to provide a seed source for reseeding degraded pasturelands as a way to recover the natural equilibrium of native species in Mediterranean environments. Agronomic practices for seed production of floral species under the risk of extinction in favourable environments in order to provide seed stock to reseed represent a scientific tool to reduce the genetic erosion of floral species present in the degraded swards of the Mediterranean pasturelands.
Poonam Lapalikar, Dugyala Raju, Urmil J. Mehta (India) In Vitro Studies on Zinc, Copper and Cadmium Accumulation Potential of Jatropha curcas L. Seedlings (pp 49-53)
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Original Research Paper: Germination rate, growth, accumulation capacity and tissue-wise distribution pattern of metals in Jatropha curcas L. when exposed to increasing concentrations of heavy metals ranging from 100-700 µM Zn and 50-200 µM of Cu and Cd were evaluated under aseptic in vitro conditions. Growth of seedlings was found significantly affected rather than germination frequency. There was significant decline in the shoot heights with increasing concentrations of Cd and Cu as compared to Zn, exhibiting differential metal specific tolerance levels. Accumulation of metal increased concomitantly with increasing exposure level of all the metals studied. The pattern of metal accumulation was in the order of root > stem > leaf for all three metals. Among the metals, the accumulation pattern was Cd > Cu > Zn, Cd > Zn > Cu and Zn > Cd > Cu for root, stem and leaf samples, respectively. The Translocation Factor values with respect to leaves and stem tissues in combination were mostly <1 in all concentrations studied, except in Cu control, Zn 300 and 500 µM, where it was slightly higher, suggesting that metal accumulated mostly in plant roots. Biological Accumulation Coefficient values showed that jatropha could accumulate Cd more efficiently than Cu and Zn. This study helps in understanding optimal growth and accumulation performance of J. curcas in different soil contamination levels of Cu, Cd and Zn and would be useful for a value added approach for eco-restoration of specific metal-contaminated sites.
Dugyala Raju, Sulekha Hazra, Urmil J. Mehta (India) Natural Accumulation of Copper and Distribution of Metals in Plants Growing in Copper Mining Area, Rajasthan, India (pp 54-60)
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Original Research Paper: Phytoremediation helps not only to stabilize erosion but also to extract metals from mine waste. The present study aimed to identify naturally-growing hyperaccumulator plants in mining areas. Plants growing naturally in copper mining areas of Kolihan and different locations of Khetri, a town in Jhunjunu district of Rajasthan, India were selected for the study. Different samples collected from mining sites were analyzed by atomic absorption spectroscopy. More copper accumulation was observed in the leaves of Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. and Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.than in the twigs. Leaves and twigs of P. juliflora showed a 42- and 8-fold increase in the amount of copper, 775.29 μg g-1 and 146.8 μg g-1, respectively than plants growing on metal contamination-free soil (controls). The present results indicate that these plants could be hyperaccumulators and possibly be used for the removal of Cu from contaminated sites. The distribution of other metals such as Mn, Zn and Fe was also studied. A high Transfer Coefficient of 6 was observed in P. juliflora leaves of Khetri site “A” (near temple Mata mandir) while it was 4.65 in A. excelsa for Zn.
Abdesatar Omezine (Tunisia), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan) Floristic Biodiversity of Weed Communities in Relation to Conventional and Organic Farming (pp 61-69)
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Original Research Paper: This experiment was conducted at the Superior Institute of Agronomy at Chott-Meriem (Sousse, Tunisia). Weed abundance, species richness and diversity in conventional and organic irrigated vegetable crops in Chott-Meriem were compared in spring by means of a relative abundance index for each species. Shannon’s index was used to assess the effect of intensification on the floristic composition and structure of weed vegetation, while a community coefficient was used to evaluate the degree of resemblance between the two floras and to evaluate the role of organic farming in preventing the continued loss of biodiversity caused by intensive farming practices. 8 paired crops were selected and the samples were arranged in randomized complete design. Each pair contained one long-term established organic (for at least 20 years) site and one conventional site. 160 samples were collected from primary plots and analyzed separately or together. 64 samples of 100 g soil were used for analysis of organic matter, nitrogen, pH and electrical conductivity. The weed species were identified and classified according to their importance and type of distribution. Results showed that abundance, species richness and diversity were higher in organic than in conventional fields. This study also showed that the conversion from conventional to organic farming inverted the weed flora. The organic matter content and the salinity were higher in organic soils. The abundant biomass present in organic farming may promote biodiversity and help to biologically control pests and favor insect pollination. A better understanding of changes occurring in the composition of the weed flora could result in a better weed control strategy.
Tukaram D. Nikam, Janardhan N. Nehul, Yogesh R. Gahile, Bhausaheb K. Auti, Mahendra L. Ahire, Kirti M. Nitnaware, Bimba N. Joshi, Narendra Jawali (India) Cyanobacterial Diversity in Western Ghats Region of Maharashtra, India (pp 70-80)
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Original Research Paper: Cyanobacterial diversity in Ahmednagar, Pune and Satara district of Maharashtra State, Western Ghats – one of the biodiversity hotspots of India–was assessed. Screening of 627 soil samples from different locations in the above regions revealed that 94 cyanobacterial spp. belonged to 38 genera, 14 families and 5 orders. Diversity analysis revealed that Westiellopsis prolifica Janet. was relatively abundant (47.21%) followed by Nostoc calcicola Brebsson ex Born. et Flah. (44.82%). The frequency distribution of Myxosarcina spectabilis Geitler was less. Nostoc (Nostocaceae), Chroococcus (Chroococcaceae) and Anabaena (Nostocaceae) were the most densely populated genera. The information obtained will be useful in exploitation of cyanobacteria for biotechnological, pharmaceutical and other applications.
Oluwatosin Ebenezer Atobatele (Nigeria) Pelagic Phytoplankton Succession Pattern in a Tropical Freshwater Reservoir (Aiba Reservoir, Iwo, Osun, Nigeria) (pp 81-84)
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Original Research Paper: Fortnight phytoplankton sampling of Aiba Reservoir was carried out between March 2004 and February 2005 to determine phytoplankton succession pattern. Five major phytoplankton groups identified show two similar ordered directional repeated sequences of abundance peak patterns during an annual cycle; each began with a peak in Cyanophyceae abundance followed in order by peak abundances of Dinophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Bacillariophyceae and Euglenophyceae. The first succession pattern occurred between late April and mid-September (early rainy season) while the second occurred between early September and early February (late rainy season – dry season). A brief dry spell (August break) during the rainy season is a major factor determining this biannual pattern.
Godwin Oladele Olutona, Modupe O. Dawodu, John Chijioke Ajaelu (Nigeria) Trace Metal Levels and Speciation Pattern in the Surface Water of Aiba Reservoir, after Sorption on Amberlite XAD-16 Resin (pp 85-90)
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Original Research Paper: A study was carried out to assess the concentration of five trace metals and speciation pattern in surface water Aiba reservoir in Iwo, Nigeria, after sorption with Amberlite XAD-16. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer was used for estimation of trace metals. The total mean concentrations of trace metals in the surface water of the reservoir was in the decreasing order of Fe (0.47 ± 0.15) > Mn (0.26 ± 0.09) > Zn (0.16 ± 0.07) > Cu (0.07 ± 0.02) > Pb (0.005 ± 0.001) mg/L. Fe and Mn were above the WHO-specified limit, Zn and Cu were below limit and Pb was exactly equal to the specified limit. The speciation pattern revealed that suspended metal, organic bound, and free metal ions had the highest percentage distribution in Mn and Fe, Pb, Zn and Cu, respectively. The suspended particulate metals and those that are bounded to humic and fulvic acid in the natural organic matter present in water, have very low toxicity. In this study, the free metal ion had the highest percentage of Zn and Cu and this was an indication that they were potentially toxic and may have adverse effects on the aquatic habitats living in the reservoir.
Rajesh Kumar, Ashwani Tapwal (India), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Shailesh Pandey, Davapod Borah (India) Diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi Associated in a Mixed Natural Forest of Jeypore, Assam (pp 91-93)
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Research Note: A study was conducted to investigate the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), spore population in rhizosphere soils and root colonization with trees in different seasons at Jeypore Reserve Forest, Assam, India. All 10 selected tree species had an AMF association with a varied range of root colonization and spore count in rhizosphere soil. Maximum percent root colonization was recorded in the rainy season (23-61%) which gradually declined in winter (13-58%) and was minimum in winter (11-40%), irrespective of the host species. Correspondingly, the rainy season recorded highest AMF spore count in rhizosphere soils (15-42) followed by winter (11-32) and least in summer (8-21). Based on morphological characteristics, 11 AMF species were recorded, representing four genera, viz. Glomus (5 spp.),Acaulospora (4 spp.), Gigaspora (1 sp.) and Sclerocystis (1 sp.), in which Glomus and Acaulosporai were found to be the dominant genera.
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