Volume 6 Special Issue 2 2012
Buckwheat 3 &
Biology and Biotechnology, Health and Nutrition of Millets

ISBN 978-4-907060-01-5

How to reference: Jacquemart AL, Cawoy V, Kinet JM, Ledent JF, Quinet M (2012) Is Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) Still a Valuable Crop Today?. In: Dobránszki J, Gondola I (Eds) Buckwheat 3 & Biology and Biotechnology, Health and Nutrition of Millets. The European Journal of Plant Science and Biotechnology 6 (Special Issue 2), 1-10

Guest Editors

Judit Dobránszki

Research Institute of University of Debrecen, Centre for Agricultural and Applied Economic Sciences, Hungary

István Gondola

CONTENTS AND ABSTRACTS

Anne-Laure Jacquemart, Valérie Cawoy, Jean-Marie Kinet, Jean-François Ledent, Muriel Quinet (Belgium) Is Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) Still a Valuable Crop Today? (pp 1-10)

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Invited Review: Cultivation of buckwheat has decreased progressively worldwide over the last 20-30 years because of its low and erratic yield. In this review, we stress out the strengths and weaknesses of this crop. Buckwheat constitutes a multifood-use pseudocereal with nutritional benefits consisting in the absence of gluten in the flour, the richness in water soluble fibres, high quality proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, and appreciable mineral and vitamin content. The anti-oxidative action of buckwheat as a result of the presence of rutin and other phenolic substances is exploited by the pharmaceutical industry. Buckwheat’s benefits also include positive cardiovascular effects, regulation of certain types of diabetes, and prevention of gallstones and hormone-dependent cancers. Buckwheat, therefore, offers multiple nutritional advantages and can play a major role in the prophylaxis of several human diseases. From an agronomical point of view, buckwheat represents a good opportunity for environmentally friendly cultivation, with reduced use of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. However, various physiological and ecological characteristics result in low and variable yields: (1) sensitivity to abiotic factors, such as frost, heat, water deficit, long photoperiod for photosensitive varieties, and tendency to lodging; (2) self-incompatibility, distyly and pollen transfer limitation; (3) indeterminate flowering and extended seed maturation over time leading to difficulties in determining the optimal time to harvest; and (4) female organ flower sterility. As a result, improvement in cultivar breeding and crop management is still needed.

Svetlana Radović, Jovanka Miljuš-Djukić, Jelena Samardžić, Bojana Banović, Dragana Nikolić, Mira Milisavljević, Gordana Timotijević (Serbia) Buckwheat as a Model Plant in Molecular Biology (pp 11-16)

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Invited Mini-Review: Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) is a pseudocereal crop, mostly grown in the Northern Hemisphere. It is desirable for human consumption because buckwheat seeds have a high content of proteins (with high concentrations of essential amino acids) and minerals (e.g. iron, zinc and selenium). Concerning their high nutritive value, buckwheat seed storage proteins (SSPs), and genes that code for them, are of importance to study. Our research focus is the structure and the expression profile of selected buckwheat genes coding for proteins of known functions (such as SSPs), as well as proteins of undefined functions possibly involved in protein degradation/processing, and/or in the stress response (e.g. aspartic proteinases and metallothionein). These genes, their promoters and translational products are important, not only from the aspect of fundamental research, but also in regard to their potential biotechnological application in agriculture and land preservation. In particular, we are interested in the processes taking place during the last stage of buckwheat embryogenesis, especially in the analyses of specific gene expression regulation under normal physiological and/or stress conditions, which is the subject of our present research.

Asha Panwar, Nidhi Gupta, Rajinder S. Chauhan (India) Biosynthesis and Accumulation of Flavonoids in Fagopyrum spp. (pp 17-26)

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Invited Review: Buckwheat is a multipurpose crop used for both grains and greens and known to have several medicinal and nutritional properties. Buckwheat contains flavonoids such as rutin, anthocyanins, catechins, chlorogenic acid, 4-hydroxy-3-methoxy benzoic acid, caffeic acid, epicatechins, p-courmaric acid, ferulic acid etc. Fagopyrum esculentum and Fagopyrum tataricum are the major source of flavonoid called rutin. Seeds of F. tataricum contain higher rutin content in comparison to F. esculentum. This review discusses the physiological and molecular basis of flavonoid biosynthesis and accumulation in plants in general and rutin and anthocyanin content in Fagopyrum species, its correlation with the expression of flavonoid pathway genes and the effect of different environmental factors on flavonoid biosynthesis. The understanding of rutin biosynthesis in buckwheat is expected to supplement for genetic improvement of buckwheat for higher nutritional value.

Ralph L. Obendorf (USA), Marcin Horbowicz (Poland), Takashi Ueda (USA), Kathryn J. Steadman (Australia) Fagopyritols: Occurrence, Biosynthesis, Analyses and Possible Role (pp 27-36)

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Invited Review: The discovery, isolation, purification, and molecular structure characterization of six fagopyritols found in common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) seeds and milling fractions are described. The proposed roles of fagopyritols in seed maturation, seed desiccation tolerance, agronomic seed performance, and human health are outlined. The similarities in molecular structure of fagopyritols to a putative insulin mediator related to non-insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and polycystic ovary syndrome are described. The characterization of genes encoding enzymes capable of synthesizing buckwheat fagopyritols is highlighted.

Tatsuro Suzuki, Yuji Mukasa, Tosikazu Morishita (Japan), Sun-Ju Kim, Sun-hee Woo (Korea), Takahiro Noda, Shigenobu Takigawa, Hiroaki Yamauchi (Japan) Possible Roles of Rutin in Buckwheat Plant (pp 37-42)

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Invited Mini-Review: Buckwheat contains rutin, a kind of flavonol, not only in the seeds but also in the cotyledon, leaf, stem and flower. To date, several reports have been published on the physiological roles of rutin. In this review, mainly based on our recent results, we summarize the main aspects of rutin related to its possible physiological roles. The enzymes, which catalyzed a part of rutin synthesis (quercetin glycosyl transferase) and decomposition (rutinosidase), have lower K_m especially for quercetin/UDP-glucose and rutin respectively compared to other similar compounds. This indicates that buckwheat developed glycosyl transferase and rutinosidase suit for rutin metabolism. The time course studies for rutin accumulation at seed ripening and leaf/cotyledon expansion show that rutin accumulation pattern is different for each organ. In seeds, rutin content per seed increases along with seed development, and mature seed contains the largest rutin concentration. In leaves, rutin content also increased along with development whereas senescent leaves contain little amount of rutin. In the cotyledon and mature leaves, rutin is distributed in the epidermis, and large amount of rutinosidase activity is present on surface of cotyledon during cotyledon expansion. In addition, rutin concentration and rutinosidase activity was increased by some stresses (UV-B radiation, cold and moisture stress) in leaves. Quercetin, the hydrolyzed moiety of rutin, possesses high antioxidant activity and the ability to be a precursor of a kind of anti fungal agents. Therefore, rutin and rutinosidase are suggested to be related to the enhancement of the defense system against stress conditions in buckwheat.

Tatsuro Suzuki, Yuji Mukasa, Tosikazu Morishita (Japan), Sun-hee Woo, Sun-Ju Kim (Korea), Takahiro Noda, Shigenobu Takigawa, Hiroaki Yamauchi (Japan) Possible Roles of Lipase, Lipoxygenase and Peroxidase in Buckwheat Flour and Noodles (pp 43-49)

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Invited Mini-Review: The freshness of buckwheat flour and its unique flavor is important for the quality of buckwheat products. Several reports have shown that lipid degradation and oxidation in buckwheat flour are the main causes of measurable quality deterioration during storage. On the other hand, some flavor compounds are produced by lipid degradation and oxidation pathway. Therefore, understanding lipid degradation and oxidation pathways is important in the quality control of buckwheat flour and products. In some crops, lipoxygenase pathway is important for lipid degradation and oxidation. The pathway includes some enzymes such as lipase (triacylglycerol lipase EC 3.1.1.3) (LIP), lipoxygenase (EC 1.13.11.12) (LOX) and peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.7) (POX). This review, mainly based on our recent results, summarizes the main aspects of the possible relation between these enzymes, their substrates and flour deterioration/flavor generation as well as purification and characterization of related enzymes. LIP and POX activity in buckwheat flour apparently plays a role in the lipid degradation and quality deterioration whereas LOX does not have significant influences. LIP and POX activity in buckwheat flour also plays an important role for flavor generation of boiled buckwheat noodles whereas LOX does not have. This indicates that the mechanism of quality deterioration and flavor generation in buckwheat flour is different from that of rice and soybean.

Jai C. Rana, Rajinder C. Chauhan, Tilak R. Sharma, Nidhi Gupta (India) Analyzing Problems and Prospects of Buckwheat Cultivation in India (pp 50-56)

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Invited Mini-Review: Buckwheat is a multi-purpose crop grown widely at higher elevations in the Indian Himalayan region. Buckwheat contains high amounts of antioxidant compounds, mainly rutin (a flavonol glycoside) with several medicinal properties. The physiological and biological properties of rutin include anti-oxidation, anti-inflammation, anti-hypertension, vasoconstrictive, spasmolitic and positive inotropic effect. Out of 20 species reported world-wide only two, Fagopyrum tataricum and F. esculentum are cultivated in India and elsewhere in the world. The majority of the varieties grown are farmer’s own selections, however, five varieties have been released through the All India Coordinated Project on underutilized crops. Besides, around 911 germplasm accessions have been conserved in medium term storage at Shimla; 837 out of these have also been maintained as base collection in the National Gene Bank. Although buckwheat has diverse uses as food, medicinal and industrial plant, the area under its cultivation is decreasing at an alarming rate mainly due to changing cropping patterns, migration, low productivity, changing food habits, and lack of alternative uses/products. Screening of germplasm for biotic and abiotic stresses, restructuring of research and development activities towards value addition by exploiting its potential as fast food, medicinal and beverage plant and awareness of its food and medicinal value at grass root level are some of the new thrust areas for expanding buckwheat cultivation.

Bojana Filipčev, Olivera Šimurina, Marija Bodroža-Solarov (Serbia) Enrichment of Ginger Nut Biscuits with Wholegrain Buckwheat and Rye Flour (pp 57-62)

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Original Research Paper: To broaden the use of common buckwheat in human nutrition, an attempt was made to use wholegrain buckwheat flour in ginger nut biscuit formulations. The aim of the study was to develop a ginger nut biscuit formulation in which wheat flour is partially substituted with buckwheat flour in such doses to obtain nutritionally improved and acceptable product. Buckwheat flour was tested at doses 30, 40, 50% (flour weight basis). Proximate composition (basic chemical composition, fibers, micro elements), physical (height, width, spread, density, color) and textural attributes (hardness, fracturability) of buckwheat enriched ginger nut biscuits were analyzed and compared to those made with wheat flour solely. Since buckwheat tends to increase hardness of the products due to the peculiar gelling properties of buckwheat starch, inclusion of rye flour at 10 and 20% dose was also investigated. The dimension of ginger nut biscuits decreased but since the biscuit height was more affected by the rising doses of buckwheat, the spread increased in the composite biscuits (significant difference was noted at 40 and 50% levels of replacement). This could be attributed to the coarse granularity of buckwheat flour. Hardness and fracturability of ginger nut biscuits increased significantly with the addition of 50% buckwheat. The enriched biscuits were nutritionally improved as they contained more fibers, minerals and proteins (percent increase ranges depending on the replacement level were: for fibers 41.8-141.4%, for Fe 132.3-189.2%, for Zn 115.4-223.1%, for Mn 43.9-72.7%, for Cu 212.5-262.5%, for proteins 6.6-17.1%). Yellow tone decreased in all buckwheat containing biscuits at all substitution levels. All composite biscuits over 40% buckwheat substitution level showed an increased red tone. The majority of composite biscuits did not differ significantly from the control regarding darkness.

Danuta Zielińska, Jacek Kwiatkowski, Henryk Zieliński, Dorota Szawara-Nowak, Małgorzata Przygodzka, Grzegorz Lamparski (Poland), Fridrich Zeller (Germany) Antioxidant Properties and Flavonoid Composition as Quality Index of the Hulls and Groats from Common, Tartary and an Interspecific Hybrid of Buckwheat (pp 63-69)

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Original Research Paper: The interest in buckwheat flavonoids as therapeutic agents against diseases involving free radical damage and possible allelopathic compounds is growing. This paper presents a field program addressed to buckwheat genotypes with the aim to develop cultivars of high antioxidant capacity and high flavonoid concentration in the hulls and groats. Therefore, both parameters were considered as new quality index of buckwheat cultivars. The antioxidant capacity of groat and hull separated from buckwheat seed was evaluated against stable, non-biological radicals such as 2,2’-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonate) radical cation (ABTS^·+) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH^•), and against the key reactive oxygen intermediate – superoxide anion radical (O₂^-•) while the reducing capacity was measured directly by cyclic voltammetry (CV) method. The extent of variation in the content of rutin, quercetin and flavone C-glucosides in hull and groat was determined by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection (HPLC-DAD). The content of flavonoids determined in the hulls and dehulled seeds of common, tartary and hybrid buckwheat varieties was correlated with antioxidant capacity determined by updated analytical strategies. The applied analytical strategy for the determination of the antioxidant capacity, based on the four analytical assays offering different chemical principles, created a useful quality parameter for buckwheat. The applied methods provided the same rank of the antioxidant capacity among hulls and groats however the real antioxidant capacity values differed according to the methods. The rank of values of the antioxidant capacity vs. applied methods was as follows: ABTS assay ≈ PCL assay > DPPH RSA ≈ CV assay. The rutin and flavone C-glucosides content in the groats from common buckwheat cultivars and the interspecific hybrid were lower than those noted in the hulls. In contrast, groat and hull from tartary buckwheat accession contained comparable high level of flavonoids. The extent of variation in the content of rutin, quercetin and flavone C-glucosides in the hull may be useful for researchers working on the resistance of buckwheat lines against pathogens and diseases whilst extent of variation in the flavonoid composition in groats should be important from the nutritional point of view. Therefore, flavonoid composition of the hulls and groats from different buckwheat genotypes may serve as a quality index.

Andrea Brunori, Gerardo Baviello (Italy), Ferenc Kajdi (Hungary), Jaime A. Teixeira da Silva (Japan), Tibor Győri, György Végvári (Hungary) Grain Yield and Rutin Content of Common and Tartary Buckwheat Varieties Grown in North-Western Hungary (pp 70-74)

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Original Research Paper: Grain yield and rutin content was assessed in 31 common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum Moench) and three tartary buckwheat (Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.) varieties grown in the summer of 2008 at the Research and Experimental Farm of the Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of West Hungary, Mosonmagyaróvár, Hungary. Grain yield of common buckwheat varied from a high of 0.98 t/ha in ‘Vlada’, 0.94 t/ha in ‘Koto’ and 0.92 t/ha in ‘Anita Belorusskaya’ to lows of 0.31 t/ha in ‘Arakawa Village’, 0.47 t/ha in ‘Kora’ and 0.48 t/ha in ‘Springfield’. Much lower grain yield was observed in the three tartary buckwheat varieties: 0.12 t/ha in ‘Ishisoba’, 0.37 t/ha in ‘Donan’ and 0.38 t/ha in ‘Golden’. As expected, and unlike grain yield performance, the rutin content observed in F. tataricum was as much as two orders of magnitude higher than that of F. esculentum, ranging between 974 mg/100 g DW in ‘Golden’ and 1196 mg/100 g DW in ‘Ishisoba’. In common buckwheat, grain rutin content ranged from 8 mg/100 g DW in ‘Darja’ and ‘Kitawasesoba’ to 24 mg/100 g DW in ‘La Harpe’. The best compromise between grain yield and rutin content in common buckwheat was observed in var. ‘Vlada’, which had the top yield and ranked third in rutin content. Tartary buckwheat grain was a valuable source of rutin. In general, grain yield and rutin content were largely not correlated, almost as if grain development and rutin accumulation were not competing processes. Rather, rutin accumulation appeared to be the function of a variety’s aptitude likely related to origin. European varieties, regardless of their yield potential, expressed quite clearly a somewhat higher rutin content than varieties originating from Pacific areas, namely Japan and Canada.

Aleksey Fesenko, Olga Romanova, Nikolay N. Fesenko (Russia) Peculiarities of Common Buckwheat Adaptation to Growing Conditions (pp 75-79)

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Original Research Paper: All buckwheat populations have a complex structure. They are comprised of 1 or 2 most numerous morphotypes (the adaptive nucleus of a population) and several less abundantones (insurance morphotypes). The main adaptive element of buckwheat is the number of vegetative nodes per plant. In the first place, this indicator changes at the expense of the vegetative nodes on the main stem. Adaptation of buckwheat to conditions of the East European part of its distribution area was linked with the decrease in the average number of vegetative nodes per stem (from 10.1 in the East Asian populations down to 3.4 in those from the Russian North). The structure of populations is characterized by predominance of SBZ-3, SBZ-4, SBZ-5, SBZ-6 and SBZ-7 morphotypes. Duration of the vegetation period has decreased from 119 down to 66 days, respectively.

SPECIAL ISSUE: Millets, 2012

Arun Gupta, Salej Sood, Pawan Kumar Agrawal, Jagdish Chandra Bhatt (India) Floral Biology and Pollination System in Small Millets (pp 80-86)

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Invited Mini-Review: The flowers and flowering of small millets are poorly understood taxonomically. The knowledge of floral structure, floral biology and pollination behaviour are pre-requisite for understanding the system and its manipulation for developing a proper crossing technique, which is largely lacking in small millets. The present manuscript deals with floral morphology of small millets in particular in the light of the Poaceae family.

Shantharaj Deepak, Sathyanarayana Niranjan-Raj (India), Axel Mithöfer (Germany), Shekar H. Shetty (India) Nutritional Bio-fortification in Pearl Millet (pp 87-90)

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Invited Mini-Review: Research on millets and their food value is in its infancy and its potential is vastly untapped. This review focuses on nutritional enhancement and improvement in pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.), a staple food crop of the semi-arid tropics largely grown for food and fodder in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of India. Climate change will greatly affect what crops we grow and where we grow it. Two of the most comprehensive models of climate change suggest that pearl millet is among the winner crops which are likely to be most suited and widely cultivated in future. Pearl millet is mainly grown for grain but it is also valued for its stove and/or forage. Apart from being used as food for human consumption and feed for livestock and poultry, pearl millet grain is also gaining importance as a cheap source of starch for fine quality brewing and in other diversified food uses. However, pearl millet being a crop grown and consumed by the poorest farmers needs nutritional bio-fortification by conventional and transgenic approaches to counteract the present nutritional deficiency in sub-Saharan Africa and parts of India.

Kajal Srivastava, A. K. Sharma (India) Nutraceutical Importance of Finger Millet (Eleusine coracana) for Improved Human Health (pp 91-95)

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Invited Mini-Review: Diet is a major focus of public health strategy aimed at maintaining optimum health throughout life thus preventing early onset of chronic diseases as well as promoting healthier ageing. Studies on the different properties of foods have shown that consumption of certain foods may pro­vide greater health benefits. One such group of healthy food is the nutraceutical, which can be any substance that is a food or component of a food that provides medical, health benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. They are often used in nutrient premixes or nutrient systems in food and pharmaceutical industries. Such foods items or food components that help in prevention or treatment of diseases are made from herbal/botanical raw materials. Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is one of the oldest cereal grains in the Indian sub-continent having high nutraceutical value. It grows well in harsh environments and on poorly fertilized and dry soils where other crops give poor yield. It also grows well in hot climates with short rainfall periods and cool climates with warm summers. A multitude of small farmers grow finger millet with limited water resources and in many countries this crop is often referred as “poor people's crop”. Finger millet as compared to the other crops is a very rich source of calcium; the calcium content is thirty times more than that of rice and wheat. It is not only a rich source of calcium but contains also other micronutrients essential for good health. It can replace or complement traditional crops and, with vertical integration into agriculture and manufacturing, it will also have impact on rural economic development.

Gábor Gyulai, László Holly, Richárd Lágler, Lajos Horváth (Hungary) The Hungarian Gene Bank Collections of Common Millet (Panicum miliaceum) and the Application for Conservation Genetics (pp 96-102)

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Original Research Paper: Over the past decades gene bank of RCAT (Research Center of Agrobiodiversity, Tápiószele, Hungary), specialized for field and vegetable crops, has collected 250 accessions of heirlooms, old varieties, landraces and breeding materials of common millet (Panicum milaceum). The accessions have been characterized by descriptor list and compiled according to the international gene bank standards (IPGRI). In the study presented, short history of the RCAT, and a case study of common millet accession (P. miliaceum) are presented. Molecular analysis of DNA samples of twenty current millets and two archaeological seed samples excavated from the 4^th and 15^th centuries are compared at loci of gln4 (nuSSR), ISSRs and 18S mtDNA. The in silico analyses at loci of ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 (nuDNA), rbcL (cpDNA) and protein RuBisCO are also presented to trace molecular events occurred during the evolution and domestication of common millet.

Saswati Sen, S. K. Dutta (India) Evaluation of Anti-cancer Potential of Ragi Bifunctional Inhibitor (RBI) from Eleusine coracana on Human Chronic Myeloid Leukemia Cells (pp 103-108)

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Original Research Paper: Finger millet (ragi), a staple food crop, is well known as a super cereal for its excellent nutritional value, long-term storage potential and ethno-medicinal characteristics. Ragi bifunctional inhibitor (RBI) from Eleusine coracana Gaertn. (ragi/finger millet) belonging to cereal alpha-amylase/protease inhibitor family, inhibits alpha-amylase and trypsin simultaneously. Several seed protease inhibitors are known for their protective as well as curative role against many types of human cancers. Recently, the anti-cancer activity of ragi seed extract on K562 chronic myeloid leukemia cells was explored. In the present study, RBI was purified from finger millet seeds by affinity chromatography followed by FPLC (Fast Protein Liquid Chromatography) size exclusion separation method. Purified RBI showed cytotoxicity against K562 chronic myeloid leukemia cells (IC₅₀ = 20 µg/ml) but, not against normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Reduction of cellular proliferation and induction of apoptosis of K562 cells by purified RBI was determined by MTT (3-4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) assay and flow cytometry analysis. This investigation being the first report on the anti-proliferative potential of RBI from edible ragi seeds, might provide a future preventive as well as curative natural solution for chronic myeloid leukemia.

Shashi Kumar Gupta, Thirunavukkarasu Nepolean, Kedar Nath Rai, Charles Thomas Hash (India), Ranjana Bhattacharjee (India/Nigeria), Abhishek Rathore (India) Within-line Genetic Variation for Quantitative Characters and SSRs in Long-time Maintained Inbreds in Pearl Millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] (pp 109-113)

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Original Research Paper: Six maintainer (B-) and restorer (R-) lines each from ICRISAT’s pearl millet hybrid parental line breeding program were investigated for within-line genetic variation for quantitative characters and simple sequence repeats (SSRs). Thirty two progenies of each inbred line were evaluated under two contrasting seasons and observed for 5 quantitative characters, and for 20 SSRs. Some B- and R- lines had small but significant within-line genetic variation for certain traits. Higher number of significant differences for within-line variation observed among progenies for B-lines (48%) than for R-lines (33%) indicated that ear-to-row procedure of line maintenance was more effective than bulking the phenotypically similar plants, for maintaining the genetic uniformity in inbreds. Amongst B-lines, ‘ICMB 89111’ had the maximum within-line variation for both quantitative characters and SSR markers. Amongst R-lines, ‘IPC 802’ and ‘IPC 909’ had within-line variation for maximum of 4 quantitative characters. Wide range of variability was observed for all the characters in both B- and R- lines, but genotypic coefficient of variation (GCV) was very low. SSRs were able to detect low level of residual heterozygosity in some of the inbreds.

Mahalingam Govindaraj, Kedar N. Rai, Ponnusamy Shanmugasundaram, Aluri S. Rao (India) Efficiency of Single Plant Selection for Grain Iron and Zinc Density in Pearl Millet (pp 114-117)

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Original Research Paper: Single plant selection, if effective, can make significant contributions to enhance breeding efficiency. This hypothesis was tested for grain iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) density in four populations of pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.). Inbreeding and selection in advancing generations is normally practiced by evaluating progenies in unreplicated nurseries or at most in 2-replication trials. In each population in this study, grain samples of 40 random individual plants (hereafter referred to as S₀ plants) and their S₁ progenies grown in 2-replication trials for two seasons (called as environments) were analyzed for Fe and Zn density using ICP analytical method. In each population, correlation coefficients between S₀ plants and their respective S₁ progenies (whether individual environment or the mean of both environments) both for Fe and Zn density were positive, highly significant, and of the similar order as the correlation coefficients between the two environments for the S₁ progeny performance. Also, the patterns of correlation coefficients between the S₀ plants and either of the two replications of the S₁ progenies in each environment were similar to those between the two replications for S₁ progeny performance in both environments and in all four populations. While the Fe and Zn density were positively and highly significantly correlated, these were not correlated with grain mass. The patterns of these associations were similar both at the S₀ plant level as well as at the S₁ progeny level in each population. These results suggest that individual plant selection can be effectively used for simultaneous genetic improvement of both grain Fe and Zn density without compromising on grain size.

Kedar N. Rai, Michael Blümmel, Akhilesh K. Singh, Aluri S. Rao (India) Variability and Relationships among Forage Yield and Quality Traits in Pearl Millet (pp 118-124)

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Original Research Paper: Pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.], owing to its high photosynthetic efficiency and biomass production ability, fewer disease and insect pest problems, and tolerance to multiple environmental stresses, is a valuable forage crop, especially in view of climate change consequences. Nine open-pollinated varieties (OPVs) and 27 top-cross hybrids made on three male-sterile lines (A-lines) were evaluated in Alfisols at ICRISAT, Patancheru in the rainy season for two years. When harvested at 50 days after sowing, top-cross hybrids out-yielded OPVs, on an average, by about 30%, most likely due to relatively earlier flowering and higher biomass accumulation. At 80 d harvest, the dry forage yield of OPVs was similar to those of the hybrids. Forage nitrogen (N), in vitro digestibility and metabolizable energy content were used as laboratory fodder quality traits. Significant differences among the OPVs and among the hybrids were observed for these three quality traits, both at 50 d and 80 d harvest. While forage N declined by 49% at 80 d harvest, in vitro digestibility and metabolizable energy declined by 16-18%. At 50 d harvest, forage N content, in vitro digestibility and metabolizable energy were all significantly negatively correlated with forage yield both in OPVs and hybrids. At 80 d harvest, forage yield was not associated with any of the three quality traits in OPVs. In hybrids, forage yield was significantly negatively correlated with forage N content, while it was significantly positively correlated with the other two quality traits. These results indicate better prospects of combining high forage yield with high levels of in vitro digestibility and metabolizable energy in hybrids than in OPVs of pearl millet.

László Radics, Izóra Gál, Imre Kádár (Hungary) The Effect of Rising Doses of NPK Fertilizers on Weeds of Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum) on a Calcareous Loamy Chernozem Soil (pp 125-128)

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Original Research Paper: The effect of different NPK levels (poor, satisfactory, excessive and toxic) and their combinations on the soil cover percentage of the natural weed flora of proso millet (Panicum miliaceum) was studied on a loamy chernozem soil with lime deposit. The N levels were 0 (poor), 100 (satisfactory), 200 (excessive) and 300 (toxic) kg ha^-1 year^-1; P and K fertilizing was done with 0 (poor), 500 (satisfactory), 1000 (excessive), 1500 (toxic) kg ha^-1 P₂O₅ and K₂O refilling doses. Later, only the sustaining of PK levels was targeted, refilling was repeated every 5-10 years. The P and K fertilizers and half of the N fertilizer was spread in autumn before ploughing the plots, the other half of N was spread in spring in the form of 25-28% calcium ammonium nitrate, 18% superphosphate and 40-60% potassium chloride. The series of mineral fertilization experiments was established in the autumn of 1973. Different crops were produced on these plots every year. Proso millet was sown in 1996. This long-term series of experiments consisted of 4N × 4P × 4K = 64 treatments, or nutritional levels, in two replications, giving a total of 128 plots. The plot size was 6 × 6 = 36 m² in mixed factorial design. Weed surveys were done in 4 m² quadrats in two replications and contained not only weed flora but crop cover too. The number of weed species, the soil cover of weeds and the crop were highly dependent upon the doses and ratio of different fertilizers.

Sunita Choudhary, Fran R. Bidinger, C. Tom Hash, Vincent Vadez, Michael Blümmel (India) Gene Action Governing Pearl Millet Stover Nitrogen and in Vitro Digestibility and Opportunities for Improvement (pp 129-131)

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Short Communication: Two pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.] stover fodder traits, nitrogen content (N) and in vitro digestibility, were targeted to investigate their modes of inheritance and to assess the scope for improving them relative to a base population. From a full-sib (FS) base population of pearl millet variety ‘ICMV 221’ three high and low nitrogen and three high and low in vitro digestibility FS were selected. Crosses were made for high × high (H × H), low × low (L × L) and high × low (H × L) FS trait contrasts and evaluated at Patancheru in the rainy seasons of 2007 and 2008. The high and low nitrogen FS parents contrasted 0.85 and 0.72% for nitrogen (N). In the crosses stover N contents were: HN × HN = 0.85%, LN × LN = 0.73% and HN × LN = 0.80% (P < 0.05). The high and low digestibility FS parents contrasted 43.3 and 40.3% for in vitro digestibility. In the crosses stover in vitro digestibilities (D) were: HD × HD = 43.7%, LD × LD = 40.3% and HD × LD = 42.2% (P < 0.05). The intermediate results of H × L crosses strongly indicates the additive nature of the stover quality traits nitrogen and in vitro digestibility and suggest the application of cyclic breeding methods for increasing stover nitrogen content and in vitro digestibility in pearl millet.

Éva B. Ábrahám, Nóra Őri, Sándor Szabó, László Romhány, Lajos Blaskó, György Zsigrai (Hungary) Quality of Grain of Different Proso Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.) Varieties (pp 132-134)

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ABSTRACT

Short Communication: The quality of the grain of 5 millet varieties was examined during our research work. There were 3 varieties with white coloured grain and 2 ones with red coloured grain among the tested 5 varieties. Millet grains were husked with a laboratory rice mill, than we milled them. We determined the total scavenger capacity, the total phenolic content and different mineral element (N, P, K, Mg, Ca, Cu, Mn, Fe, Zn) contents of whole and dehulled millet grains. The tannin content was detectable only in the bran therefore we cannot take this parameter into account during the data analyses. The quality differences of the tested millet varieties were characterized. The total phenolic content of red coloured whole millet grains was significantly higher compared to that of light coloured millet grains, but there was not significant difference between the dehulled millet grains of different cultivars. The dehulling process resulted in a significant decrease in the Fe- and Mn-contents of each variety.